Effectiveness of biochar and microbes on the dynamics of available phosphorus in NaCl-stressed soil
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.35891/jpks7y98Keywords:
Biochar, Azotobacter, Pseudomonas sp., Phosphorus availability, Saline SoilAbstract
Introduction: Saline soils are characterized by high concentrations of soluble salts and alkaline pH, which limit nutrient availability, particularly phosphorus (P), and reduce soil productivity. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of biochar and microbial inoculants in improving soil chemical properties and P availability under NaCl-induced salinity stress. Methods: The experiment was conducted from December 2024 to March 2025 in a greenhouse using a completely randomized factorial design with two factors: microbial inoculation (control. Pseudomonas sp. and Azotobacter) and biochar types (control, coconut shell, rice husk, mangrove wood and cassava stem) at a rate of 30 tons/ha. Treatments were replicated three times, resulting in 45 experimental units. Soil samples were incubated for 12 weeks with observations every two weeks and analysed for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), available P, and exchangeable Na. Results: The results showed that biochar and microbial inoculants significantly influenced soil pH, EC, and nutrient dynamics. Biochar application reduced EC through ion adsorption and improved soil porosity, while also enhancing P availability via mineral ash contribution and cation exchange processes. Microbial inoculation, particularly Azotobacter, increased P availability through the production of organic acids and phosphatase enzymes, and its effect was more pronounced when combined with biochar. The highest available P was consistently observed in the combination of Azotobacter or Pseudomonas sp and cassava stem biochar. Furthermore, both amendments reduced exchangeable Na, thereby improving soil structure and nutrient balance. Conclusion: In conclusion, the synergistic application of biochar and microbes effectively ameliorates saline soils, enhances phosphorus availability, and represents a sustainable strategy for soil fertility improvement under salinity stress.
References
Aasfar, A., Bargaz, A., Yaakoubi, K., Hilali, A., Bennis, I., Zeroual, Y., & Meftah Kadmiri, I. (2021). Nitrogen fixing Azotobacter species as potential soil biological enhancers for crop nutrition and yield stability. Frontiers in Microbiology, 12, 628379. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.628379
Akhtar, S. S., Andersen, M. N., & Liu, F. (2015). Biochar mitigates salinity stress in potato. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 201(5), 368–378. https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12132
ASTM International. (2019/2024). D4972 standard test methods for pH of soils. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Badrudin, U., Ghulamahdi, M., Purwoko, B. S., & Pratiwi, E. (2023). Analysis of productivity levels of saline coastal land for crop cultivation activities. In BIO Web of Conferences (Vol. 74, p. 03010). EDP Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/20237403010
Bai, K., Wang, W., Zhang, J., Yao, P., Cai, C., Xie, Z., Luo, L., Li, T., & Wang, Z. (2024). Effects of phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria and biochar application on phosphorus availability and tomato growth under phosphorus stress. BMC Biology, 22(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12915-024-02011-y
Bergamasco, M. A. M., Braos, L. B., Lopes, I. G., & Cruz, M. C. P. (2019). Nitrogen mineralization and nitrification in two soils with different pH levels. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 50(22), 2784–2795. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2019.1689250
Bowman, M. (2023). Phosphorus extraction – Olsen method. Protocols.io.
Dey, G., Banerjee, P., Sharma, R. K., Maity, J. P., Etesami, H., Shaw, A. K., Huang, Y.-H., Huang, H.-B., & Chen, C.-Y. (2021). Management of phosphorus in salinity-stressed agriculture for sustainable crop production by salt-tolerant phosphate-solubilizing bacteria: A review. Agronomy, 11(8), 1552. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11081552
Dimitriadou, S., Isari, E. A., Grilla, E., Kokkinos, P., & Kalavrouziotis, I. K. (2025). Revitalizing degraded soils: The role of biochar in enhancing soil health and productivity. Environments, 12(9), 324. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12090324
dos Santos, W. M., Gonzaga, M. I. S., da Silva, A. J., & de Almeida, A. Q. (2022). Improved water and ions dynamics in a clayey soil amended with different types of agro-industrial waste biochar. Soil and Tillage Research, 223, 105482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2022.105482
Hassani, A., Smith, P., & Shokri, N. (2024). Negative correlation between soil salinity and soil organic carbon variability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 121(18), e2317332121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2317332121
Iowa State University. (2018). Exercise 3: Determination of exchangeable base cations – Soil & plant growth laboratory manual.
Joseph, S., Cowie, A. L., Van Zwieten, L., Bolan, N., Budai, A., Buss, W., Cayuela, M. L., Graber, E. R., Ippolito, J. A., Kuzyakov, Y., Luo, Y., Ok, Y. S., Palansooriya, K. N., Shepherd, J., Stephens, S., Weng, Z., & Lehmann, J. (2021). How biochar works, and when it doesn’t: A review of mechanisms controlling soil and plant responses to biochar. GCB Bioenergy, 13(11), 1731–1764. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12885
Li, Z., Wang, Y., Liu, Z., Han, F., Chen, S., & Zhou, W. (2023). Integrated application of phosphorus-accumulating bacteria and phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria to achieve sustainable phosphorus management in saline soils. Social Science Research Network, 163971. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4365676
Nepal, J., Ahmad, W., Munsif, F., Khan, A., & Zou, Z. (2023). Advances and prospects of biochar in improving soil fertility, biochemical quality, and environmental applications. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 11, 1114752. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1114752
Nur Kholifah, A., Pawestri, N., & Utami, M. (2025). Determination of available phosphorus in soil samples using Olsen & Bray I method. Indonesian Journal of Chemical Research, 10(2).
Obia, A., Cornelissen, G., Mulder, J., & Dörsch, P. (2015). Effect of soil pH increase by biochar on NO, N₂O and N₂ production during denitrification in acid soils. PLOS ONE, 10(9), e0138781. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138781
Pang, F., Li, Q., Solanki, M. K., Wang, Z., Xing, Y. X., & Dong, D. F. (2024). Soil phosphorus transformation and plant uptake driven by phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms. Frontiers in Microbiology, 15, 1383813. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1383813
Priyadarshini, R., Nurherdiana, S. D., Solekhah, B. A., & Hamzah, A. (2024). Evaluation of biochar and Bacillus sp. amendments on lead polluted land: Dehydrogenation enzyme and Pb availability studies. Environmental Challenges, 14, 100819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2023.100819
Saifullah, Dahlawi, S. M. A., Naeem, A., Rengel, Z., & Naidu, R. (2018). Biochar application for the remediation of salt-affected soils: Challenges and opportunities. Science of the Total Environment, 625, 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.257
Sikora, F., et al. (2020). Cation exchange capacity. ResearchGate.
Silva, L. I. da, Pereira, M. C., Carvalho, A. M. X. de, Buttrós, V. H., Pasqual, M., & Dória, J. (2023). Phosphorus-solubilizing microorganisms: A key to sustainable agriculture. Agriculture, 13(2), 462. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13020462
Subekti, N. A., Sembiring, H., Erythrina, Nugraha, D., Priatmojo, B., & Nafisah. (2020). Yield of different rice cultivars at two levels of soil salinity under seawater intrusion in West Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas, 21(1), 14–20. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d210103
Tan, H., Ong, P. Y., Klemeš, J. J., Bong, C. P. C., Li, C., Gao, Y., & Lee, C. T. (2021). Mitigation of soil salinity using biochar derived from lignocellulosic biomass. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 83, 235–240. https://doi.org/10.3303/CET2183040
Xiang, L., Harindintwali, J. D., Wang, F., Redmile-Gordon, M., Chang, S. X., Fu, Y., He, C., Muhoza, B., Brahushi, F., Bolan, N., Jiang, X., Ok, Y. S., Rinklebe, J., Schaeffer, A., Zhu, Y. G., Tiedje, J. M., & Xing, B. (2022). Integrating biochar, bacteria, and plants for sustainable remediation of soils contaminated with organic pollutants. Environmental Science & Technology, 56(23), 16546–16566. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c02976
Xie, W., Yang, J., Gao, S., Yao, R., & Wang, X. (2022). The effect and influence mechanism of soil salinity on phosphorus availability in coastal salt-affected soils. Water, 14(18), 2804. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14182804
Yan, N., Marschner, P., Cao, W., Zuo, C., & Qin, W. (2015). Influence of salinity and water content on soil microorganisms. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 3
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Maya Dwi Setyoningrum, Rossyda Priyardhasini, Fitri Wijayanti
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright Notice
The author sends the manuscript with the understanding that if accepted for publication, the copyright of the article belongs to the author and retains publishing rights without restriction.
Copyright includes the non-exclusive right to reproduce and submit articles in all forms and media, including reprints, photographs, microfilm, and other similar reproductions, as well as translations. Reproduction of any part of this journal, its storage in the database and its transmission by all forms of media, such as electronic, electrostatic and mechanical copies, photocopying, recording, magnetic media, etc.
The journal editorial board makes every effort to ensure that no false or misleading data, opinions, or statements are published in the journal. Either way, the contents of articles and advertisements published in journals are the sole and exclusive responsibility of each writer and advertiser.
All articles published Open Access will be immediately and permanently free for everyone to read and download. We are continuously working with our author communities to select the best choice of license options, currently being defined for this journal as follows: Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
Download Template
